Restarting gitlab-puma fails after upgrading to gitlab-17.9.1-2

Restarting gitlab-puma after upgrading to gitlab-17.9.1-2 fails:

bundler: failed to load command: puma (/usr/share/webapps/gitlab/vendor/bundle/ruby/3.3.0/bin/puma)
/usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/definition.rb:668:in `materialize': Could not find bootsnap-1.18.4, ffi-1.17.1, pg-1.5.9, rugged-1.6.3, bcrypt-3.1.20, gpgme-2.0.24, hamlit-2.15.0, commonmarker-0.23.11, RedCloth-4.3.4, nokogiri-1.18.2, gitlab-glfm-markdown-0.0.27, puma-6.5.0, re2-2.15.0, version_sorter-2.3.0, charlock_holmes-0.7.9, ruby-magic-0.6.0, fast_blank-1.0.1, pg_query-6.0.0, thrift-0.16.0, prometheus-client-mmap-1.2.8, stackprof-0.2.27, rbtrace-0.5.1, vmstat-2.3.1, grpc-1.63.0, google-protobuf-3.25.6, json-2.7.3, oj-3.13.23, oj-introspect-0.7.2, yajl-ruby-1.4.3, ed25519-1.3.0, nkf-0.2.0, msgpack-1.5.4, ffi-yajl-2.6.0, aliyun-sdk-0.8.0, digest-crc-0.6.5, rinku-2.0.0, racc-1.8.1, nio4r-2.7.0, character_set-1.8.0, regexp_property_values-1.0.0, bigdecimal-3.1.7, io-event-1.9.0, murmurhash3-0.1.7, cbor-0.5.9.8, websocket-driver-0.7.6, libyajl2-2.1.0, llhttp-ffi-0.4.0, date-3.4.1, unf_ext-0.0.8.2 in locally installed gems (Bundler::GemNotFound)
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/definition.rb:232:in `specs'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/definition.rb:299:in `specs_for'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/runtime.rb:18:in `setup'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler.rb:167:in `setup'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/setup.rb:32:in `block in <top (required)>'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/ui/shell.rb:173:in `with_level'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/ui/shell.rb:119:in `silence'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/setup.rb:32:in `<top (required)>'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/cli/exec.rb:57:in `require_relative'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/cli/exec.rb:57:in `kernel_load'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/cli/exec.rb:23:in `run'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/cli.rb:452:in `exec'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/vendor/thor/lib/thor/command.rb:28:in `run'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/vendor/thor/lib/thor/invocation.rb:127:in `invoke_command'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/vendor/thor/lib/thor.rb:538:in `dispatch'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/cli.rb:35:in `dispatch'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/vendor/thor/lib/thor/base.rb:584:in `start'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/cli.rb:29:in `start'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/gems/3.3.0/gems/bundler-2.6.0/exe/bundle:28:in `block in <top (required)>'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/3.3.0/bundler/friendly_errors.rb:117:in `with_friendly_errors'
	from /usr/lib/ruby/gems/3.3.0/gems/bundler-2.6.0/exe/bundle:20:in `<top (required)>'
	from /usr/bin/bundle:25:in `load'
	from /usr/bin/bundle:25:in `<main>'

cc @segaja @loqs, any idea what went wrong in 696c5774?